Channel Introduction

Information Technology

Computer assisted instruction

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) refers to an educational system of instruction performed almost entirely by computer. The term, Computer Based Learning (CBL) refers to the use of computers as a key component of the educational environment. While CAI and CBL can refer to the use of computers in a classroom, they more broadly refer to a structured environment in which computers are used for teaching purposes. Computer programs allow students to work at their own pace along with direct and individualized feedback. Misconceptions can be corrected as they appear and the students' records and scores are made available to the instructor. The use of computers in the teaching and learning process is an important advance in making the highest quality of education universally available, and thus allowing each person to most fully develop their potential.

Computerized Instruction:

Computer assisted instruction (CAI) includes a variety of computer-based packages that provide interactive instruction. Some are sophisticated and expensive commercial packages while other applications are simple solutions developed by individuals for a local situation. Since work done in one subject area is difficult to transfer to other subject areas, much time and money needs to be invested toward its development. However, once an application has been set up, the cost per additional student is relatively small. Since fewer face to face lectures and seminars are required, this also places fewer geographical and temporal constraints on staff and students.

Computer assisted instruction can be Internet-based or run on a personal computer from a CD or DVD. Presentations on computers are particularly suited to subjects that are visually intensive, detail oriented, and difficult to conceptualize. Upper level science courses can benefit the most using the "virtual" cases to illustrate the complex biochemical processes or microscopic images as well as reducing the need to use animal or human tissue. Since the 1970s, CAI packages have become more advanced, interactive, and attractive multimedia learning experiences.

Computer educational systems typically incorporate functions such as:

• Assessing student capabilities with a pre-test
• Presenting educational materials in a navigable form
• Providing repetitive drills to improve the student's command of knowledge
• Providing game-based drills to increase learning enjoyment
• Assessing student progress with a post-test
• Routing students through a series of courseware instructional programs.
• Recording student scores and progress for later inspection by a courseware instructor.

With some systems, feedback can be geared towards a student's specific mistakes, or the computer can navigate the student through a series of questions adapting to what the student appears to have learned or not learned. This kind of feedback is especially useful when learning a language, and numerous computer-assisted language learning (CALL) programs have been developed. A typical CALL program presents a stimulus to which the learner must respond. The stimulus may be presented in any combination of text, still images, sound, and motion video. The learner responds by typing at the keyboard, pointing and clicking with the mouse, or speaking into a microphone. The computer offers feedback, indicating whether the learner’s response is right or wrong and, in the more sophisticated programs, attempting to analyze the learner’s response and to pinpoint errors.

The term, "Learning Design"^[1], refers to the type of activity enabled by software such as the open-source system LAMS (Learning Activity Management System)^[2] which supports sequences of activities that can be both adaptive and collaborative. Computer-aided assessment (also but less commonly referred to as e-Assessment), ranges from automated multiple-choice tests to more sophisticated systems.

Communication technologies are generally categorized according to whether the activity is done at the same time as others online or not. Asynchronous activities use technologies such as blogs, wikis, and discussion boards. Synchronous activities occur with all participants joining in at once, as with a chat session or a virtual classroom or meeting.

Development of Interactive Technology:

Gradually, since the early 1970s, lecturers and teachers adopted computer assisted instruction for a range of teaching purposes. The challenge of CAI is to understand the strength of the media and how to utilize its advantages fully.

The first general-purpose system for computer-assisted instruction was the PLATO System^[3] developed at The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The PLATO system evolved with the involvement of Control Data who created the first authoring software used to create learning content. The Science Research Council wrote the first CAI system of Math for K-6. Wicat Systems then created WISE as their authoring tool using Pascal, and developed English and Math curricula for K-6. The very first complete CAI classroom for K-6 students was set up at the Waterford Elementary School in Utah using the Wicat system. The first public CAI classroom with its own layout and design was implemented with the Wicat System by Baal Systems (later known as Virtual Systems) in Singapore as a joint operation between Wicat and Baal. It is from this design that all the computer learning centers have evolved.

As rapidly as technology changes and software advances, there are some design principles that remain constant:^[4]

• Interdisciplinary Teams
• Importance of Content
• Quality Production Values
• Choosing and Understanding an Educational Approach

E-learning:

E-learning is an all-encompassing term generally used to refer to computer-enhanced learning, although it is often extended to include the use of mobile technologies such as PDAs (personal data assistant) and MP3 (digital audio) players. It may include the use of web-based teaching materials and hypermedia in general, multimedia CD-ROMs or web sites, discussion boards, collaborative software, e-mail, blogs, wikis, computer aided assessment, educational animation, simulations, games, learning management software, electronic voting systems and more, with possibly a combination of different methods being used.

Along with the terms "learning technology" and "educational technology," the term is generally used to refer to the use of technology for learning in a much broader sense than the computer-based training or computer aided instruction of the 1980s. It is also broader than the terms "online learning" or "online education," which generally refer to purely web-based learning. In cases where mobile technologies are used, the term "M-learning" has become more common. E-learning may also refer to educational web sites such as those offering worksheets and interactive exercises for children. The term is also used extensively in the business sector where it generally refers to cost-effective online training.

E-learning is naturally suited to distance learning and flexible learning, but can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term "blended learning" is commonly used.

In higher education especially, a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) (which is sometimes combined with a Managed Information System (MIS) to create a "Managed Learning Environment") may be established in which all aspects of a course are handled through a consistent user interface standard throughout the institution. Established universities, as well as newer online-only colleges, may offer a select set of academic degree and certificate programs via the Internet at a wide range of levels and in a wide range of disciplines. While some programs require students to attend some campus classes or orientations, many are delivered completely online. In addition, universities may offer online student support services, such as online advising and registration, e-counseling, online textbook purchase, student government, and student newspapers.

Computer Learning Debate:

Since its inception, Computer Based Learning has been a subject of close scrutiny and debate, with myriad arguments being advanced both in support of and against it.

Those skeptical of the value of CBL have often argued that it can only teach to its programmatic limitations; that it is not as good as having a human teacher because it can only answer questions which have been programmed into it. In addition, critics such as Neil Postman^[5] have argued that a curriculum with a computer at its core teaches a "technocratic" belief system, making all education into an uncritical type of vocational training. Rather than developing the more generalizable skills of reading, writing, and critical inquiry, the prominent use of computers in the classroom teaches how to manipulate the technology to elicit the desired response in a non-collaborative, non-rational manner.

In contrast, CBL advocates such as Jonathan Bishop believe that the use of computers in education can lead to social justice^[6] and can be successful when weblogs are used as reflective learning logs.^[7]. Also among the arguments advanced by the proponents of CBL is its ability to provide quantifiable and instantaneous feedback for its users. In particular, Computer Based Learning is often seen as the most efficient and effective manner in which to conduct distance education, as a lesson plan can be created that allows people to study at their own pace, either via the Internet or software installed on individual computers at various sites.

Some advocates of Computer Based Learning suggest that the best use of CBL is alongside a more traditional curriculum, playing a supplementary role, facilitating interest in a topic while developing the technical and informational skills CBL promotes. Companies and schools now providing CBL products have often taken this approach in creating and promoting their educational services:

Creating exceptional learning opportunities as well as a change in delivery of instruction requires following a path that involves various stages of disequilibrium, reflection, and continuous improvement.^[8]

References:

• http://www.wiley.com/legacy/compbooks/catalog/11688
• https://www.alibris.com/Computers-in-the-Classroom-How-Teachers-and-Students-Are-Using-Technology-to-Transform-Learning-Andrea-R-Gooden/book/28766448

HRM Assignment

Field Review Method

Field Review Method:

Whenever subjective performance measures are used, differences in rater perceptions cause bias. To provide greater standardization in reviews, some employers use the field review method. In this method. a skilled representative of the HR department goes into the “field” and assists supervisors with their ratings. The HR specialist solicits from the immediate supervisor specific information about the employee’s performance Then the expert prepares an evaluation that is based on this information.

Under this method, performance of employees is at first documented then evaluated with the mutually set performance standards.

  Essay method

  Comparative evaluation

  Rating

  Forced distribution method

  Graphic rating scale method

  Field review method

  Checklist

  Confidential report

  Critical incident method

  Management by objectives (MBO)

  Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS)

Purpose:

We describe why human resource management (HRM) decisions are likely to have an important and unique influence on organizational performance. Our hope is that this research forum will help advance research on the link between HRM and organizational performance. We identify key unresolved questions in need of future study and make several suggestions intended to help researchers studying these questions build a more cumulative body of knowledge that will have key implications for both theory and practice.

The purpose of this paper is to test alternative conceptualizations of the relationship between systems of human resource management (HRM) practices and organizational effectiveness. The authors describe a framework suggesting a complex relationship between HRM practices and organizational effectiveness, test this approach empirically in a large sample of US motor carriers, and compare the results to those derived using other approaches prevalent in the strategic HRM literature.

Design/methodology/approach:

The study used a large scale cross-sectional survey design. In a sample of US motor carriers, questionnaires completed by senior HRM department staff were used as the primary data. The data were supplemented by organizational effectiveness data reported by motor carriers to the US Government.

The results support the general hypothesis that HRM practices enhance organizational effectiveness, provide some evidence that HRM practices can enhance each other’s effectiveness, and underscore the value of theory driven methodological approaches. Specifically, the authors found that HRM system comprising practices that ensure selectivity in staffing, performance-based pay, and enhanced employee opportunity through participation in decision-making result in higher levels of organizational effectiveness. Additionally, the effects of other combinations of these practices varied.

Practical implications:

This study highlights the need for HRM departments and organizations to approach the strategic management of employees with a systems perspective. The optimal design of an HRM strategy must take into account the various components.

Originality/value:

This study is one of the first to test the main assumptions of the systems perspective in strategic HRM using multiple measures and empirical approaches for combining HRM practices into systems. Comparison of these different approaches in a single study offers insight into how researchers can test the relationship between HRM practices and organizational effectiveness and provide practitioners more useful approaches for designing HRM systems.

Comparative education approaches:

 Apollo (1986) identified eight approaches to the study of Comparative Education. They are:

1. Problem Approach or Thematic approach

2. Case study approach

3. Area study approach

4. Historical approach

5. Descriptive approach

 6. Philosophical approach

 7. International approach and

8.  Gastronomic approach

1. Problem approach or thematic approach:

—  In this approach the investigator will first of all identify a particular educational problem in his own country. Then, he will begin to look for another country that has the same problem.

—  The researcher will also study the education problem of another country in relation to their culture. The researcher will not only study the educational problem of another country but he will also examine the solution applied to such problem by the affected country.

2. Case study approach:

  —  In this approach, an education comparativist from Nigeria can go to Iraq to study the primary education Level of the country. His report will be very comprehensive for his readers to understand.

  —  If it is possible for the researcher, he can take all the educational systems of the country and compare such educational system with his own educational system.

—   The problem with this approach is that as a human being, the investigator may not be totally objective in his report.

3. Area study approach:

Breeder (1958) is of the opinion that "one of the oldest and clearest ways of introducing the subject comparative Education is to study one geographical area at a time" He therefore identified the following stages:

—  Following stages in the area study approach

i .Descriptive Stage –

—  At this stage, an Educational researcher can make a description of his own educational system as well as practices.

—  The investigator has to start by reading extensively. He will start by reviewing the available literature on the educational system of the country being studied.

—  To enable the investigator have on the spot assessment, he can personally visit the country whose educational system is studying.

ii.Interpretation stage

At this stage of the study, the investigator will now collate and analyze  the data gathered from various sources to enable him do justice to the educational system of the area being studied.

iii.  Juxtaposition (combination)stage

    At this stage of the study the investigator will put side by side the result obtained from the interpretation(analysis) stage with the educational system  of his own country.

iv. Comparative stage

At this stage of the investigation, the researcher will objectively compare and contrast the educational practices of the country being studied with that of his own.

It is at this stage of the study that whatever hypotheses that might have been formulated by the researcher that will be rejected or accepted.
     4. Historical approach

  In this approach, an investigator  will only take a village, town or country for the examination of its educational historical development right from the first day when education was introduced into the place and the time of study.

  This approach will enable the researcher to identify the factors that are responsible for the current educational system of the country being studied. However, the problem with this approach is that greater emphasis is always placed on the past.

  Friedrich Schneider said in his publication(1947), he gave the following as the factors that can influence the educational theory and practice of any country:

(a) National character

(b) Geographical space

(c) Culture

(d) Sciences

(e) Philosophy

(f) Economic life and politics

(g) Religion

(h) History

(i) Foreign influences and

(j) The development of pedagogies

5. Descriptive approach :

Here, the researcher will have to describe everything he finds on ground. Such things to be described could include:

—  Number of schools,

—  student enrolment,

—  number of teachers,

—  number of the school buildings including classrooms

—  number of subjects being offered.

However, the approach is not very popular among the modern educational Comparatives.

6. International Approach:

This is an approach whereby all the variations existing from one area to another within the same country are taken into consideration while comparing the system of education of a foreign country with one's educational system.

7. Gastronomic approach:

This is a method whereby both the diet as well as the eating habit of the people in a particular country are related to the practices of their education, the approach is not very popular among the modern educational comparatives.

8. The philosophical approach

A Russian Philosopher by name Segues Hessen was the first man to apply philosophical approach to the study of Comparative Education when he published his book in 1928 which he titled "Kritische Vergleichung des Schulwesens der Anderen Kuturstaaten". In the book, he chose four main philosophical problems.

http://www.info4mystery.com/2016/03/approaches-of-comparative-education.html

http://amj.aom.org/content/39/4/779.short?rss=1&ssource=mfr

Assignment of Educational Law

School funds, Income Tax, GP Funds

School funds:

Punjab government had allocated the money to 1,946 government-run schools in the district two months ago for replacing missing facilities and released the amount 10 days ago.

The administrations of these schools decided to use this money when they were directed to construct higher boundary walls, install barbed wires, UPS devices, CCTV cameras and ensure other security measures, a senior official of the education department told Dawn, adding that the government did not have enough money to give them more.

Government-run schools will not be given more funds this fiscal year, he said, because the Rs240 million had been released in the middle of the fiscal year and every school was to be given between Rs0.8 and Rs1 million.

The official explained that for the next five months, government schools will not be able to replace missing facilities like chairs, benches, computer labs, water coolers and fans among other things.

“The government has asked the education department to deploy 176 retired army or Rangers officials on guard duty for schools. Interviews for these positions will start on February 2 and the guards will be paid from development funds,” he added.

Executive District Officer Education Qazi Zahoorul Haq told Dawn the money allocated for missing facilities had been utilised for upgrading security because keeping children and staff safer was more important.

These measures will be inspected in a few days, he added.

When asked about hiring ex-military and former Rangers officials as guards, he said that the education department had already hired guards for 29 schools and that the remaining schools that are on the sensitive list will be hiring guards over the next week.

He added that the police were helping in keeping schools safe and that police units will be guiding and checking schools in this regard.

Guards will be equipped with the latest weapons by the Punjab government, he said, adding that “the local administration is purchasing 147 rifles from the Pakistan Ordnance Factories to give to school guards”.

Income Tax:

Taxes are the main source of revenues for the government of modern ages. The government imposes taxes in order to collect revenue to run the government, to impose its policies, for fair distribution of wealth, and to administer the government is the best way. Like other countries of the world, Pakistan has also a proper taxation system that is being regulated in the country according to Income Tax Ordinance, 2001, Sales Tax Act, 1990, Federal Excise Act, 2005, Custom Act, 1969, Capital Value Tax levied through Finance Act, 1989 and few others that are mostly in shape of amendments. Federal Government is the only body who is empowered to levy and collect the tax. After that, the constitution gives the power to the provincial government to legislate on taxes.

According to the Constitution of Pakistan, the Federal Government in Pakistan can impose the following taxes in the country.

• Duties of customs, including export duties.
• Duties of excise, including salt, but not including alcoholic liquors, opium or other narcotics;
• Taxes on income other than agricultural income;
• Taxes on corporations.
• Taxes on the sales and purchases of goods imported, exported, produced, manufactured or consumed, except sales tax on services.
• Taxes on the capital value of the assets, not including taxes on the immovable
• Taxes on mineral oil, natural gas, and minerals for use in generation of nuclear energy.
• Taxes and duties on the production capacity of any plant, machinery, undertaking, establishment or installation in lieu of any one or more of them.
• Terminal taxes on goods or passengers carried by railway, sea or air; taxes on their fares and freights.

In addition to above-mentioned taxes that are imposed by the Federation according to the Constitution of Pakistan, following are the taxes that are levied by the provinces.

• Agriculture income tax
• Sales tax on services
• Taxes on transfer of immovable property
• Professional tax
• Tax on luxury houses
• Tax on registration of luxury vehicles etc.
• Property tax

GP Funds:

1.      Temporary/Refundable Advance: The following documents are essentially be furnished to AG/DAO/AAO for Temporary Advance

a.      Form TR-58 (for officials BPS-1 to 15).

b.      Pay Bill (for BPS 16 and above).

c.        Source-5 duly completed in all respects.

d.      Sanction from the competent authority mentioning therein Number & date.

e.       Copy of last Balance Sheet.

f.        Copy of Computerized NIC.

g.      Number & date of Credit Memo balance thereby transferred from other DAO/AAO.
2. Permanent/Non-Refundable Advance:

a.      Three advances are admissible 1st at the age of 45 to 50, 2nd at 50 to 55 years and 3rd at 55 to 58.

b.      Form TR-58 (for non-gazetted).

c.       Pay bill (for gazetted)

d.       Source-6 completed in all respects.

e.       Sanction from the competent authority with Number & date .

f.        Copy of first page of Service Book for age verification.

g.      Copies of Last Payroll and last Balance Sheet.

References:

https://www.dawn.com/news/1236898    Published in Dawn, February 2nd, 2016

https://www.web.pk/2016/income-tax-slabs-in-pakistan-2016-17-income-tax-rates-for-salaried-persons/